Molecular Weight Effect of Different Grades of HPC Polymer

Molecular Weight Effect of Different Grades of HPC Polymer Introduction Bioavailability enhancement Wet media milling + spray drying Issues have impact on dissolution performance Novelty of the work Objective Material and methods wet stirred media milling Spray dryer Characterization techniques Results and discussion Physical stability of the milled precursor suspensions Drug breakage kinetics Formation of the NCMPs via spray drying of the precursor drug suspensions Impact of different polymers on the drug dissolution from NCMPs PVP-K30 HPMC-E3 HPC-SSL, HPC-SL, HPC-L Molecular weight effect of different grades of HPC polymer on drug dissolution performance and stability It is estimated that a large percentage of newly developed drug compounds have limited bioavailibity due to their poor water solubility and very slow dissolution rate [1]. According to the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS), class II drugs are categorized as poorly water soluble and highly permeable in human body [2]. To achieve the therapeutic efficacy of these drugs it is very essential to enhance the bioavailability by increasing the solubility or dissolution rate. A number of approaches have been developed over the time to resolve this issue. The reduction of drug particles size to sub-micron or nanometer has been one of the most popular and effective approaches of all [3-6]. By reducing the particles size order of magnitude, specific surface area of the particles increased radically and enhances the rate of absorption and dissolution [7, 8], according to the Noyes-Whitney equation [9]. Drug nanoparticles production technologies are classified into Bottom-up or Top-down or combination of both. The bottom up techniques include precipitation using supercritical fluid, liquid anti-solvent precipitation, and evaporative precipitation, where small drug particles are produced from drug molecules dissolved in organic solvent [10, 11]. In case of top-down approaches, the particles are reduced to the nanometer range [11]. High pressure homogenization [5] and wet media milling [3] are included in top-down approaches. To prepare drug nanosuspension, wet stirred media milling (WSMM) has achieved the most popularity because of its effectiveness, robustness, scalability, high drug loading, and low polymer side effects [5, 12, 13]. Due to many advantages of drug solid dosage form, it is the most popular dosage form to the patients/clinicians. To encounter this high demand, drug nanosuspensions are usually converted into nanocomposite microparticles (NCMPs) using different drying techniques and incorporated into standard solid dosage forms such as tablets and capsules [13, 14]. Vacuum dryer [15, 16], spray-freeze dryer [17, 18], spray dryer [19, 20], and fluidized bed [17] are very prevalent and widely used drying tools in the pharmaceutical industries. Among all the drying techniques, spray drying has already got attention due to its energy intensive, continuous and scalable drying process characteristics and ability to produce micro to nano-sized particles with a very narrow distribution within a very short time frame [21]. Albeit particle size reduction is an effective technique for bioavailability enhancement, stability issue has always been critical for the efficacy of the drug products. In the nanosuspension, drug particles start losing their specific surface area by aggregation due to relatively high surface energy and specific surface area and also for enhanced Brownian motion [22]. For the prevention of aggregation in the wet media and having better stability, polymers and/or surfactants are added to the suspension as stabilizers. These stabilizers provide stability by electrostatic or electrosteric mechanisms [22]. Steric stability provided by the polymer is drug specific. Only few polymers can help to reduce the particle size of a specific drug down to nanometers. Therefore, selecting a proper stabilizer for a specific drug is a very complex process and cannot be generalized easily [23]. Thus, having a better insight about the polymer properties is very crucial to figure out the right stabilize r for a particular drug. Molecular weight of the polymer is a very significant property of polymers, which determines the capability for steric stabilization along with solution properties [24, 25], regulates mechanical property of the films [26], and controls the drug release during oral administration [27]. Consequently, optimum MW and polymer concentration may help to get the best stabilization performance during and after milling, and faster drug release from the composites.   Choi et al. [16] investigated the impact of lower range MW (11,200-49,000 g/mol) of hydroxypropyl cellulose (HW) on itraconazole suspension production and their recovery from the drug composites. In that work, HPC was used solely with the same concentration, and dissolution performance study was absent.   Sepassi et al. [28] studied MW effect of two different polymers hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose (HPMC) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) on the particle size reduction of milled nabumetone and ha lofantrine suspensions; however, drying and dissolution rate were not studied. Li et al. [29] studied the MW and concentration effect of hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) on the dissolution performance of poorly soluble drug griseofulvin (GF) in presence/absence of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) as surfactant. In that investigation, drug nanosuspension was coated and dried on to the surface of pharmatose using fluidized bed technique and also determined the optimum concentration and MW effect of HPC for complete release of the drug particles during dissolution. To authors best knowledge, no comprehensive and systematic study has been performed so far to get the insight about the head to head comparison of different polymers performance and MW effect of the same polymer on the suspension stability after milling and during dissolution of NCMPs produced via spray drying. It is known from prior study that the combined use of polymers and surfactants provide a synergistic effect leading to better stability in the nanosuspension than individual stabilizers [30, 31]. Due to the side effects of surfactant, it is always expected to use minimal amount in the formulation. If only the use of polymer can provide substantial stability in the nanosuspension and immediate release of the drugs in the dissolution from NCMPs, then it is more viable than using surfactant.   Therefore, this study aims to develop an understanding of the polymer MW and different polymer effect on the physical stability of Itraconazole nanosuspension and drug dissolution fr om the composites. Itraconazole (ITZ) suspensions were milled in a WSMM and the nanocomposite particles were produced using a co-current spray dryer. Three different polymers HPC, PVP, and HPMC were used at 4.5% (w/w) concentration to see the polymer effect and for MW effect, three grades (SSL, SL, and L) of HPC having different MW were used. Laser diffraction, SEM, UV- spectroscopy, XRPD, and DSC were used to analyze the drug suspension and composite particles. Dissolution test of the NCMPs were performed by a USP II paddle apparatus. Materials Itraconazole (ITZ), is an antifungal drug with a water solubility 0.13 mg/L (at pH-7 and 25  °C), is a sparingly water soluble drug belong to the BCS Class II was purchased from Jai Radhe Sales (Ahmedabad, India) and was used as-received condition. Three different polymers, hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose (HPMC), and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) were used as polymers. Three grades (SSL, SL, and L) of HPC with ~40, ~100, and ~140 kDa molecular weight, respectively, were donated by Nisso America Inc. (New York, NY, USA) and used for steric stabilization. Polymeric stabilizers Methocel E3 grade HPMC and PVP Kollidon 30 were donated by Dow Chemical (Midland, MI, USA) and BASF Corporation (Florham Park, NJ, USA) respectively. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) is an anionic surfactant used as a wetting agent during dissolution and provide electrostatic stabilization in the suspension, was purchased from Sigma Aldrich (Milwaukee, WI, USA). Zirmil Y grade wear-re sistant yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) with a median size of 430  µm (400  µm nominal size) was used as the milling media and purchased from Saint Gobain ZirPro (Mountainside, NJ, USA). Methods Wet Stirred Media Milling (WSMM) The presuspension (before milling) was prepared following the same procedure used in Afolabi et al. [32]. All the suspension formulations are tabulated below in Table 1. API (Itraconazole) concentration was kept constant at 10% (w/w) and polymer concentration was 4.5% (w/w) for all the formulation. All the concentrations are reported with respect to deionized water (200g). The formulation with 2.5% (w/w) HPC-SL and 0.2% (w/w) SDS was used as a baseline formulation, because from earlier study it was found to be the optimum for fastest and complete drug release from the composite powders. Prepared drug suspension was milled in a Netzsch wet media mill (Micorcer, Fine Particle Technology LLC, Exton, PA, USA) with 80 ml chamber; 50 ml of the chamber was filled with 400  µm (nominal size) Zirconia beads, which is the milling media and a screen with 200  µm opening was used to hold the beads into the chamber and allowing only the passage of the suspension. A shear mixer (Fisher Scientific Laboratory Stirrer, Catalog No. 14-503, Pittsburgh, PA) was used to prepare the suspension prior to transfer into the holding tank of the miller. The suspension was pumped through a peristaltic pump and was milled under the following conditions: suspension flow rate 126 ml/min, rotor speed 4000 rpm corresponding to a tip speed of 11.7 m/s. To keep the suspension temperature below 35  °C, milling chamber and holding tank both were equipped with a chiller (Advantage Engineering Greenwood, IN, USA).   All the parameters were selected from the earlier work done by Afolabi et al. [31]. To determine the breakage kinetics, particle sizes were measured at different time intervals up to 65 minutes and the suspension were refrigerated at 8  °C for one day before spray drying. Preparation of NCMPs via Spray Drying The prepared nanosuspesions were dried within a day of milling using a spray dryer (4M8-Trix, Procept, Zelzate, Belgium) running in a co-current flow set up. All the operating conditions were taken from Azad et al. [19].The suspensions were atomized at 2 bar atomizing pressure using a bi-fluid nozzle having 0.6 mm tip diameter. In each run, ~120 gm nanosuspensions were sprayed at 1.3-1.6 g/min spray rate using a peristaltic pump (Makeit-EZ, Creates, Zelzate, Belgium). Drying air was fed co-currently from the top of the column at 120  °C temperature and 0.37-0.40 m3/min volumetric flow rate. To avoid sedimentation of the drug particles during spraying, the suspension was stirred using a magnetic stirrer throughout the run. A Cyclone separator was used at 54-70 mbar differential pressure to separate the NCMPs from the outlet air stream and collecting them in a glass jar. The dried powders later on were used for powder sample characterization e.g., XRD, DSC, Rodos, and dissolutio n testing. Particle Size Analysis Particle size distributions of the suspensions were measured at different time interval during milling and after 7-day storage in the refrigerator by laser diffraction (LD) technique using Coulter LS 13 320 (Beckman Coulter, Miami, FL). All the steps involved for measuring PSDs of the suspensions were followed from Li et al. [29]. During sample addition, intensity was maintained between 40-45% while obscuration was below 8%. Mie scattering theory was used to compute the volume-based PSDs in the software. Refractive index value is 1.68 for ITZ and 1.33 for deionized water (medium). Before measuring the PSDs, 2 ml suspension sample was collected from the outlet of the mill chamber and diluted with 5 ml of the respective stabilizer solution using a vortex mixer (Fisher Scientific Digital Vortex Mixer, Catalog no: 0215370, Model No: 945415, Pittsburgh, PA) at 1500 rpm for 1 min. The Particle size distributions (PSDs) of produced NCMPs via spray drying were measured by Rodos/Helos laser diffraction (LD) system (Sympatec, NJ, USA) based on Furnhofer theory with dry powder dispersion module. On the sample chute of the Rodos dispersing system, just about 1 g of the sample was placed. To feed the samples, the sample chute was vibrated at 50% settings and 0.1 bar dispersion pressure was imposed to suck in the falling powder through the sample cell of the laser diffraction system. Determination of Drug Content in the Composite Powders Drug content of the composite powders were measured by assay testing. ITZ solubility is - in dichloromethane (DCM). 100 mg of the NCMPs was dissolved in 20 ml DCM, sonicated for 30 mins to ensure all the ITZ is dissolved in the solvent and then they were allowed to sediment overnight. An aliquot of 100  µl is taken from the supernatant and diluted to 10 ml with DCM. The absorbance of all the samples was measured at 260 nm wavelength via Ultraviolet (UV) spectrophotometer (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA). Six replicates were prepared from each NCMP formulation to calculate mean drug content and percent relative standard deviation (RSD). Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) SEM imaging was performed to understand the morphology and particle size of the ITZ particles before and after milling. SEM images of as-received ITZ and baseline formulation was taken using a LEO 1530 SVMP (Carl Zeiss, Inc., Peabody, MA, USA) SEM machine. Approximately, 0.1 ml milled suspension sample was placed on top of a silicon chip (Ted Pella Inc., Redding, CA, USA), and then on top of a carbon specimen holder. The sample was placed into a desiccator for overnight drying. The samples were then sputter coated with carbon before analyzing [33]. X-ray Powder Diffraction (PXRD) The crystallinity of the as-received ITZ, physical mixture of ITZ-excipinets, and spray dried powders were analyzed using PXRD (PANalytical, Westborough, MA, USA), provided with Cu KÃŽÂ ± radiation (ÃŽÂ »= 1.5406 Ã…). The samples were scanned at a rate 0.165 S-1 for 2ÃŽÂ ¸ ranging from 5 to 40 °. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) DSC of the as-received ITZ, Physical mixture of ITZ-excipients, and spray dried powders was performed using a Mettler-Toledo polymer analyzer (PolyDSC, Columbus, OH, USA). The samples were heated at a rate of 10  °C/min within a range of 25-220  °C under nitrogen gas flow. With the help of the integrated software of the machine, melting temperature Tm and fusion enthalpy ΆHm were determined. Dissolution Testing Dissolution of ITZ from the as-received drug, and spray dried composite powders were determined via a Distek 2100C dissolution tester (North Brunswick, NJ, USA) according to the USP II paddle method.   The dissolution medium was 1000 ml SDS buffer with 3.0 gm/ml concentration at non-sink condition.   The medium was maintained at 37  °C temperature and 50 rpm paddle speed.   The composites were weighed equivalent to a dose of 20 mg of ITZ. Composites were poured into the dissolution medium and manually 4 ml of samples were taken out at 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 60 min. Aliquots of the samples were filtered using a 0.1  µm PVDF membrane type syringe filter to avoid any effect of undissolved drug during UV spectroscopy measurement. The absorbance of ITZ dissolved was measured via UV spectroscopy (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA) at 260 nm wavelength. The blank was measured using SDS buffer at the beginning. The amount of drug dissolved was measured using a calibration curve generated from drug concentration vs. absorbance (R2=0.9995 with p Apparent Shear Viscosity of Milled ITZ Suspensions The apparent shear viscosity of the nanosuspension was measured by following the procedure from Afolabi et al. [32], using R/S plus rheometer (Brookfield Engineering, Middleboro, MS, USA). To impart controlled shear rate on the samples from 0 to 1000 1/s in 60 s, a coxial cylinder (CC40) was used. To control the temperature the jacket temperature was kept constant at 25 ±0.5  °C. Drug nanoparticles formation and physical stability of the milled suspensions The formulation of the milled drug (ITZ) suspensions are presented in Table 1. Drug (ITZ) nano suspension was first produced in presence of both steric and an anionic surfactant, SDS (Run 1). Due to the synergistic effect of HPC and SDS [31], Run 1 was used as a baseline to assess the impact of various stabilizers (HPC, HPMC E3, PVP k30, and SDS) in their breakage kinetics and physical stability of the resulting suspensions. This baseline formulation was found to be the optimum formulation from a previous work performed by Meng et al [29]. The molecular weight effect of HPC was then studied in absence of SDS surfactant (Run 2-4) using three different grades of HPC; SSL, SL, and L grades having molecular weight ~40, ~100, and ~140 kDa, respectively. The apparent shear viscosity of all the formulations (Run 1-7) are represented in Figure 1. Formulations with 2.5% (w/w) HPC-SL/SDS, 4.5% (w/w) HPC-SL, and 4.5% (w/w) HPC-L (Run 1, 3, and 4) are showing near Newtonian behavior, indicating the extent of aggregation is very low. Milled drug suspensions stabilized by SDS or polymer alone (except HPC-SL and HPC-L) are showing significant shear-thinning behavior, indicating significant amount of aggregates. References 1.Kesisoglou, F., S. Panmai, and Y. Wu, Nanosizing-oral formulation development and biopharmaceutical evaluation. Advanced drug delivery reviews, 2007. 59(7): p. 631-644. 2.Amidon, G.L., et al., A theoretical basis for a biopharmaceutic drug classification: the correlation of in vitro drug product dissolution and in vivo bioavailability. Pharmaceutical research, 1995. 12(3): p. 413-420. 3.Merisko-Liversidge, E. and G.G. Liversidge, Nanosizing for oral and parenteral drug delivery: a perspective on formulating poorly-water soluble compounds using wet media milling technology. Advanced drug delivery reviews, 2011. 63(6): p. 427-440. 4.Panagiotou, T. and R.J. Fisher, Form nanoparticles via controlled crystallization. Chemical Engineering Progress, 2008. 104(10): p. 33-39. 5.Keck, C.M. and R.H. 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America’s Personal Values, Compared Essay -- Literary Analysis

America’s Personal Values Compared Great Indian authors have written grand epics that depict heroic characters performing virtuous deeds. Many of these epic tales feature fearsome and godly battles, while others highlight the soft side of human emotions. Despite seemingly unrealistic characters such as talking hawks and ten-headed monsters, and unlikely conflicts that feature bloody battles, many of these grand epics display many traditional values that Americans value in modern society. When construing three particular celebrated Indian epics (â€Å"the Mahabharata,† â€Å"the Bhagavad-Gita,† and â€Å"the Ramayana†), readers would easily glean the values and belief system that Ancient Indian society held in high esteem many thousands of years ago. Moreover, by comparing and contrasting respective ideals and principles, similarities between Ancient Indians and Americans would come to surface. The Mahabharata teaches the value of integrity through the story of a deal between a king and a hawk. At a nearby river performing a ritual sacrifice, a king comes across an injured dove trying to escape the clutches of a hawk. He makes a vow to protect the dove and says, â€Å"This bird has come to me for asylum. It is my duty to protect it,† (From the Mahabharata). The hawk rebuts and cites his need for food; consequently, the king cuts a deal and promises to exchange his own flesh to compensate the hawk’s loss: â€Å"You shall have my flesh and nothing less,† (From the Mahabharata). The gods reward him for his integrity and bestow upon him the gift of prosperity. Certainly, our modern society values integrity to a great extent, but the king in this story goes above ordinary ethics and endures pain to protect an innocent life. While most Americans might not s... ... integrity, duty, and honor. The mere prevalence of these regarded values in modern society indicates their utility and tenability. Even though modern Americans might not on a day-to-day basis physically sacrifice themselves, go to battle, or fight a ten headed monster, they share the same principles of integrity, duty and honor with heroes of Ancient Indian Literature toward their perspective towards life. Works Cited "From the Bhagavad-Gita." Prentice Hall Literature. Trans. Swami Prabhavananda and Christopher Isherwood. Upper Saddle: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004. 182-89. Print. "From the Mahabharata." Prentice Hall Literature. Trans. R. K. Narayan. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004. 174-81. Print. "From the Ramayana." Prentice Hall Literature. Trans. R. K. Narayan. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004. 190-98. Print.

Local and National Provision for Swimming :: Papers

Local and National Provision for Swimming The sport I have chosen to analyse the Local and National provision for is swimming. I have competed in many "in-club" races and swam against several other clubs, this was through a continuous interest in swimming and sport as a whole. Every popular sport has to be provided for at different levels, from an absolute beginner, to international excellence. At each level, there are different coaching and training procedures, as well as the consideration of the disabled to cater for. This operation is run by the Amateur Swimming Association (A.S.A.), where rules are made official and provision is provided, which coaches and swimmers have to abide by. The A.S.A has a swimmer development program called Swim21. I quote from the website, "Swim21 provides a long overdue nationally recognised club development programme which provides clear pathways which swimmers can progress along. I'm sure the programme will go along way to helping us produce the champions of the future." The quote basically tells us that the A.S.A is very keen to produce talented swimmers into the future and do everything it can to achieve this. Swim21 also applies to disabled swimmers. At grass roots level the most important contributor to the access a young performer has to sport is usually from the school, and this is no different in swimming. As well as this many young children have available to them the opportunity of learning to swim at their local swimming facility. Henceforth, in general, once young swimmers have learned the basics, with a particular enjoyment for the sport, they have the choice to move onto competitive swimming by signing up to a club registered with the A.S.A within their area. The next stage to improving is to enter into a training program, suited for age and experience. Normally within a swimming club, there are teaching groups depending on the experience and skills they have, so that they can therefore train to become better, or train to perfect the skills the need to

Disengagement Theory Essay

This is when a person, usually an older person, withdraws from involvement or when someone’s relationships with other people slowly cut off or change. Older people may withdraw from involvement when they feel they are limited to try and interact with other people. It has been proved that a lot of older people were more involved with life when they were younger however some people disagree and feel there are a large number of people who do not withdraw from society. For example when they retire they may lose contact with a lot of their colleagues or if they or their friends/family have impairments such as hearing or visual impairments it could make it more difficult to interact with each other. Technology may also restrict older people as they may not have internet or phones to be able to interact with their friends and family. Activity Theory This theory highlights the importance of on-going social activity and believes older people should be encouraged to stay involved whilst suggesting that people will be more satisfied with their lives if they remain active as well as ensuring friendships and relationships are intact by interacting with others just the same. It also suggests that someone who remains an active member of society will increase their health and wellbeing and that own-age friendships should be developed. The only criticism of this theory is that some people are more than happy as they are and want to live alone not to mention the fact that not everyone is able to be as active as they would like. As you can see, these theories are completely different in comparison to one and other. One suggests as you get older you will withdraw from society and become unhappy whereas the other suggests you can stay happy and active if you want to and that you just need to remain in contact with different roles in society. If you follow the disengagement theory you are more likely to end up unhappy or lonely as your mental and even physical health may go on to deteriorate through lack of activity or interaction with the outside world and friends or family. On the other hand the activity theory promotes  positivity by encouraging the elderly to communicate and interact with others no matter what their situation. This theory suggests that the more active you are in society, the less chance you have of developing mental health problems such as dementia and that there is a higher chance of prolonging your life and staying healthy. This is because the more you interact with people, the less tim e you will have on your own feeling lonely or depressed as your mind will be busy with positive and happy thoughts instead. There are many different factors that influence ageing and each factor may have a different effect on how the person may age. The main factors would be the personal level of exercise and nutrition in life, health care and education accessibility as well as job roles and finances. Exercise and nutrition, especially from an early age can have a huge impact on how you age later on in life. It is known that premature ageing is caused by a poor diet and little exercise as this causes cell destruction and increases the risk of obesity, diabetes and cancer. A healthy lifestyle can help lower the chances of many illnesses and diseases as well as improving your psychological health, for example the healthier and active you are the more friends and activities you are likely to have to keep you happy and in touch with the world. Health care and education accessibility may also influence the way you age as poorer health care and education facilities may lead to poor health and stress which can affect the way you age and even cause premature ageing Similarly with job roles and finances a higher job role and income can mean a better life with better nutrition, exercise, health care and education helping to lead a more pleasurable life and cause slower ageing. Social isolat ion and bereavement can also take its toll on ageing as the upset and strain can lead you to age a lot quicker and look a lot older than you are due to the body and mind shutting down to try to relieve the stress. The main role for all health and social care workers is to treat and care for individuals whilst respecting their independence and wellbeing whether they are old, young, male, female, disabled etc. Every individual should have the same rights and independence whilst taking into consideration that not everyone will have the same needs and some may need more attention or care than others. Although freedom is important to the individual the health and social care worker must be aware of the extent of the independence to be given to the individual ensuring they are protected against any potential risks or dangers. Independence can be promoted in several different ways, such as: Respecting personal rights and privacy. Giving the individual freedom of choice (where possible). Allowing the individual to carry out actions for their selves, for example letting them wash themselves (where possible). Addressing the individual appropriately and by their preferred name. Using initiative to care for the individual to show genuine care and trust. Involving the individual and their family when making changes to care plans etc. It is important for health and social care workers to address the individual properly as it gives the individual a sense of comfort and trust that the staff will care and respect them. Thinking outside of the box and using initiative when working with the individual will make them feel at ease that you are not just at work to work but at work to care for them as an individual instead of a patient. A great bond and trust between staff and patients is vital. Involving the individual and family with care plans, meal plans and other changes will make them feel valued and that they are in the best hands as it can sometimes be upsetting to both the individual and family when someone they love is reliant on others to care for them. They can feel upset that they are no longer capable of looking after themselves and so the care from the staff can really make a difference. The patients’ freedom of choice is also very important as if the patient was constantly told what to they were to d o without any say they could end up upset or depressed and may even question their existence and feel worthless. Some  choices may not always be appropriate or possible so this means the staff must be trained and taught how to overcome these situations especially against patients that may prove a little difficult. Health and social care workers must work together to give all patients the best care possible. This means regular meetings with different levels of staff in the hierarchy so every staff member is kept in the loop to ensure patients feel valued and cared for, especially those with no family or friends. Regular training sessions may also be required so that the staff is updated regularly on how to approach certain situations with others sharing their experience and knowledge to everyone in the group.

Cherokee Removal Essay

In the early nineteenth century, an infant America was increasing in population and expanding in the South until settlers were faced with the dilemma of the Native Americans. Anglo-Americans had two very distinct stances on how to deal with southern Indian tribes, particularly the Cherokee. One side was eager for land and developed the idea that Indians were both racially and culturally inferior and a hindrance to American progress, while on the other hand, some Americans believed that the Cherokee tribe was a sovereign, independent nation and that moral responsibility required the United States to protect them. Pro-removal Americans rallied behind leaders such as, Andrew Jackson and William Cass. Jackson’s patronizing attitude toward Native Americans was, based on his ideology that Native Americans were children in need of guidance. Jackson also advocated that the removal policy was beneficial to the Indians. Cass believed the Native Americans were unsophisticated and white settlers were racially superior. In his essay, Removal of the Indians, Cass depicts, â€Å"We doubt there is, upon the face of the globe, a more wretched race than the Cherokees, as well as the other southern tribes, present†¦. The Cherokee Removal, pg. 117). † Cass alluded to the underlying racism that piloted the argument for expulsion of the Cherokee. Many white settlers concurred with the belief that Indians were racial inferior and therefore white settlers and Native Americans could not live together. Cass also asserted in the same essay â€Å"A barbarous people, depending for subsistence upon the sanctity and precarious supplies furnished by the chase, cannot live in contact with a civilized community (The Cherokee Removal, pg. 116). Some Americans supported this because they deemed anything different than them as wrong. The pro-removal argument was justified thru the belief that race determined character. For some Anglo-Americans race made Native Americans menial and disposable. Americans against removal united behind the idea that the Native Americans were born on this land and should be left in peace. Jeremiah Evarts under the pen name, William Penn, in A Brief View of the Present Relations between the Government and People of the United States and the Indians within Our  National Limits, said, â€Å"Those Indian tribes and nations, which have remained under their own form of government, upon their own soil, and have never submitted themselves to the government of the whites, have a perfect right to retain their original form of government, or to alter it, according to their own views of convenience and property(The Cherokee Removal, pg. 106). †Evarts’ opposition to removal was based on the fact the Indians were born on the land and therefore it was rightfully theirs. He also pointed out, â€Å"For one hundred and fifty years, innumerable treaties were made between the English colonists and the Indians, upon the basis of the Indians being independent nations, and having a perfect right to their country and their form of government (The Cherokee Removal, pg. 106). † Evarts’ argument was that white settlers legally could not disregard treaties made with Native Americans for hundreds of years. Some Anglo-Americans knew removal of the Cherokee was unconstitutional and to renege on agreements made throughout history was morally incompetent. Catherine Beecher also advocated against Indian removal, writing, â€Å"Nor are we to think of these people only as naked and wandering savages. The various grades of intellect and refinement exist among them as among as (The Cherokee Removal, pg. 112). † Beecher and other Americans opposed removal because they did not believe it was morally righteous to degrade Indians because of race, they considered them people too, and respected the differences in both race and culture. Evarts and Anglo-Americans against removal foresaw the inhumanity of removal, Evarts stated, â€Å"The removal of any nation of Indians from their country by force would be an instance of gross and cruel oppression. (The Cherokee Removal, pg. 107). † Both perspectives on Indian removal had a few commonalities. Some people such as John Knox believed that, â€Å"the central premise of which was that United States Indian policy should make expansion possible without detriment to the Indians (The Cherokee Removal pg. 10). The only consistent agreement however was that the white settlers’ culture and Native American cultures would never successfully co-inhabit. Americans realized that the differences in culture would only continue to cause problems. However the differences was some believed the Indians should be forced west and others believed they should be left in peace. There was an agreement that the Cherokee were uncivilized and to some, even worse not Christian. Again there was another divide on the solution for the primitivism of the Cherokee. Some sought assimilation and of course, removal. In my final analysis, the Cherokee removal argument never reached a consensus, and like most political matters, was won by the most power hungry side. Due to a burgeoning population, racial bigotry, and the lack of centralized government enforcement of the 18th century the Cherokee were forced to leave their homes. The consequence was a forced tumultuous, cross-country walk, where they faced disease, hunger, and fatigue now known as the Trail of Tears. Thousands died, and the removal of the Cherokee had permanent affects on them, as well as all Native Americans.

Positive environment indoors and outdoors Essay

It’s comfortable, interesting, attractive and appropriate for the child or children who use it. For some children it becomes like a second home where they eat and sometimes sleep. A suitable environment for a young baby will be very different from a suitable environment for a four or five year old although some features will be the same. Environments should be attractive and make children feel safe and secure and happy to be there and they should also be places where children can confidently play and learn. Research framework that supports a positive environment for children At the heart of this framework is an approach which recognises the right of all young children to high quality relationships, environments and services which offer a holistic approach to meeting their needs. Such needs should be interpreted broadly and encompass play, learning, social relationships and emotional and physical wellbeing. This approach is important for all children but is of particular benefit in offering effective support to those children and families requiring higher levels of support. Early intervention has relevance to a wide range of social policy but it is particularly relevant in early years, which will often be the earliest and best opportunity to intervene. We have identified 4 principles of early intervention. In short, these are: †¢ we want all to have the same outcomes and the same opportunities; †¢ we identify those at risk of not achieving those outcomes and take steps to prevent that risk materialising; †¢ where the risk has materialised, we take effective action; †¢ we work to help parents, families and communities to develop their own solutions, using accessible, high quality public services as required Outcome 3 how to look after children’s skin, hair and teeth How does a positive environment and routine support children and their families emotional needs? It teaches children how to behave with people in general, so it would help children know how to communicate with their parents and families positively and how to speak to visitors politely. It could also help children to talk to staff about worries they have if the staff are positive and approachable. Having a positive environment also allows parents to talk to the staff and feel included and equal. why is it important for children to have physical and mental time? Basics for a child’s good physical health: Nutritious food Adequate shelter and sleep Exercise Immunizations Healthy living environment Basics for a child’s good mental health: Unconditional love from family Self-confidence and high self-esteem The opportunity to play with other children Encouraging teachers and supportive caretakers Safe and secure surroundings Appropriate guidance and discipline Give children unconditional love. Love, security and acceptance should be at the heart of family life. Children need to know that your love does not depend on his or her accomplishments. Mistakes and/or defeats should be expected and accepted. Confidence grows in a home that is full of unconditional love and affection. Nurture children’s confidence and self-esteem. Praise Them – Encouraging children’s first steps or their ability to learn a new game helps them develop a desire to explore and learn about their surroundings. Allow children to explore and play in a safe area where they cannot get hurt. Assure them by smiling and talking to them often. Be an active participant in their activities. Your attention helps build their self-confidence and self-esteem. Set Realistic Goals – Young children need realistic goals that match their ambitions with their abilities. With your help, older children can choose activities that test their abilities and  increase their self-confidence. Be Honest – Do not hide your failures from your children. It is important for them to know that we all make mistakes. It can be very re-assuring to know that adults are not perfect. Avoid Sarcastic Remarks – If a child loses a game or fails a test, find out how he or she feels about the situation. Children may get discouraged and need a pep talk. Later, when they are ready, talk and offer assurance. Encourage children – To not only strive to do their best, but also to enjoy the process. Trying new activities teaches children about teamwork, self-esteem and new skills. Encourage Children to Play To children, play is just fun. However, playtime is as important to their development as food and good care. Playtime helps children be creative, learn problem-solving skills and learn self-control. Good, hardy play, which includes running and yelling, is not only fun, but helps children to be physically and mentally healthy. Children Need Playmates Sometimes it is important for children to have time with their peers. By playing with others, children discover their strengths and weaknesses, develop a sense of belonging, and learn how to get along with others. Consider finding a good children’s program through neighbors, local community centers, schools, or your local park and recreation department. Parents Can be Great Playmates Join the fun! Playing Monopoly or coloring with a child gives you a great opportunity to share ideas and spend time together in a relaxed setting. Play for Fun  Winning is not as important as being involved and enjoying the activity. One of the most important questions to ask children is â€Å"Did you have fun?’’ not â€Å"Did you win?† In our goal-oriented society, we often acknowledge only success and winning. This attitude can be discouraging and frustrating to children who are learning and experimenting with new activities. It’s more important for children to participate and enjoy themselves Why is it important for children to have quiet and rest time? He body need  time each day to recover from all the activity it has been doing, this is achieved through sleep and rest. There are 3 levels of quiet period. -sleep times are especially required for babies and toddlers, try to make sure that daytime naps are planned for the early afternoon so that the child will still sleep at night. -rest periods are needed for toddlers and pre-school -queit activitites are essential for all age groups as a break between other activities and a chance to recuperate these include things such as story time, doing a quiet activity ort listening to music all of which should use material that is soothing and not stimulating. Older children may enjoy watching tv for a short period of time Explain the basic nutrional requirements of children and young people Plenty of fruit and vegetables – children’s growing bodies require good nutrition and fruit and veg contain a multiple of vitamins, minerals and other healthy compounds. Citrus fruits and strawberries are rich in immunce system boosting vitamin C, carrots are loaded with eye health vitamin A and spinach is a good source if iron. Eating well also decreases the chance of childhood obesitiy and encourages health life style. Plenty of potatoes, bread, rice ,pasta and other starchy foods-starchy foods are a good source of energy and the mains source of a range of nutrients in a child diet, as well as starch they contain fibre, calcium, iron and B vitamins. The protein helps a childs body to grow and repair itself, the fibre helps get rid of waste products, and B vitamins help release energy and help to body to work properly. Some milk and dairy foods-milk and dairy products provide calcium, phosphorous, magenesium and protein which are all essential for health bone growth and development which can prevent and protect children from diseases such as brittle bone disorder later in life. The amounts of calcium in dair products are also beneficial for the development and maitainance of health teeth. Some meat, fish, eggs ,beans and other non-dairy sources of protein- these foods are rich in protein which is needed for lots of functions throughout the body, it is also a good source of vitamin B12 and iron which will help prevent iron deficincy anaemia, which is a common condition found in children and can result in children having little energy and looking pale. Explain the governments guidance on a balanced nutritional diet? The UK’s national food guide, the eatwell plate, defines the government’s advice on a healthy balance diet. The eatwell plate is a visual representation of how different foods contribute towards a healthy balanced diet. The plate model has been tested extensively with consumers and health professionals. The size of the segments for each of the food groups is consistent with government recommendations for a diet that would provide all the nutrients required for a healthy adult or child (over the age of 5). The eatwell plate, based on the 5 food groups, makes healthy eating easier to understand by giving a visual representation of the types and proportions of foods needed for a healthy balanced diet. Choosing a variety of foods from within the 4 main food groups will add to the range of nutrients consumed. This includes: plenty of fruit and vegetables  plenty of bread, rice, potatoes, pasta and other starchy foods some milk and dairy foods  some meat, fish, eggs, beans and other non dairy sources of protein Foods and drinks high in fat and/or sugar are not essential to a healthy diet, and should be consumed only in small amounts. Full weeks menu for placement. Where would you store the information on the child/young person who has their dietary needs? This information is made clear to all memebers of staff as we all help with dinner time, it is also kept in the childs file and is kept in the kitchen and on the side of the fridge. Who would know this information? Everyone at nursery is made aware as well all take part in food times Explain the basic food safety when providing food and drink to children/young people? Cover food= food is kept covered at all times to stop any dust, or flies that may get onto the food. Food is also cover to stop if from going bad/stale before it is given out to the children Label children’s own items- if a child brings in their own food/drink it is recorded in the base room of that child’s diary it is made aware to all  members of staff that the food has been brought in for that specific child. It is labeled with the child’s full name and base room and is stored correctly In date= all food is checked daily for food that is going out of date or is out of date, we give food out from the dates which are closer to becoming out of date first. If food has become out of date it is thrown away. Provide plates=plates are touched with staff who wear gloves and are washed in the dishwasher whenever they are used, the plates are dried then put away is a cupboard Wear gloves/aprons when dealing with food= all memebers of staff who are in the conservatory have to wear gloves when giving out food or drink or helping children with their dinner. Aprons are worn by the cook when preparing all meals Let child/young people choose their own food= at placement we give the child an option of a different side either beans,spaghetti, rice or so on the child is shown two bowls and points to the bowl they want the child does not tough the food in the bowl and when had been given a bowl canot swap for something else. How should a baby’s bottle be warmed=babys bottles are warmed by either poorinh water into the kettle boiling it then added the the baby’s milk and left to cool or if able to the babys bottle is heated in the microwave and left to cool.

pangaea essays

pangaea essays Since its early beginnings some 4.6 billion years ago, the earth has been constantly changing its face. Oceans have become deserts and what was once mountainous terrain has found itself submerged in salt water oceans. Underwater volcanoes create new surfaces daily which one day may host a new species of life. It is this metamorphic nature of the earth that interests geologists and paleontologists the world over. What was the appearance of the primitive earth? What changes must have taken place that resulted in the earth we know today? These are some of the questions that scientists have been addressing for years. There has been much speculation about the structural origins of the earth. The most thought-provoking being the idea that at one stage in the earths history all the continents were joined together to form a single mass of land. Francis Bacon first hypothesized the idea in the 1620s, focusing on the parallel shores of South America and Africa. But it wasnt until 1910 when Alfred Wegener scientifically considered the matter of a supercontinent which he called Pangea (Stokes, 1973). Since this time, scientists have argued for and against Wegeners explanation of Pangea. Today skeptics still argue the idea even in the face of overwhelming scientific data. Fossil, geologic and paleomagnetic data clearly validate Wegeners hypothesis- proving the existence of the super continent. Wegener first envisioned that the landmass of Pangea split apart and assumed the current continental positions. The driving force behind this magnificent change was what Wegener called continental drift. As geological evidence to support the idea of continental drift he used the good fit of South America and Africa (Stokes, 1973), which suggests that the two continents used to be joined or were in close proximity to one another. Opponents to continental drift believed that there was no m...